Queering the Spatial Dynamics: A Study on Tropical Queer Mobility Amidst Binary Oppositions in Raja Rao’s The Boyfriend (2016)
Abstract
This article critically examines the construct of tropicality, wherein colonial powers impose socially constructed ideologies, thereby obfuscating the boundaries between reality and illusion. The tropics, consequently, become a site of Othering, wherein queerness is suppressed due to the pernicious impact of colonialism. By queering India’s tropical setting, this study endeavours to bridge the prevailing gap in tropicality research, deploying ‘tropical queerness’ as a methodological framework to interrogate the nuanced dynamics of queer identities deeply entrenched in socio-political and traditional norms. Despite formidable challenges, narratives within the LGBTQIA+ community in tropical India exemplify resilience in exploring suppressed aspects of sexuality and gender whilst challenging pervasive stigma and stereotypes. This investigation scrutinises queer mobility, both mental and physical, through the power dynamics of socio-economic, socio-political, gender, and sexuality binaries impacted by colonial discourse. By situating Raja Rao’s The Boyfriend (2016) within the purview of discourse analysis, tropical India is deconstructed as an 'Orient', revealing insights into the root causes of queer mobility. Applying Edward Said's concept of latent Orientalism as ‘latent tropicality’, this study vividly portrays queer experiences as ‘tropical otherness’, particularly through the characters Yudi and Milind, whose narratives serve as a testament to the enduring impact of colonialism on queer identities in tropical India.
Keywords
Tropicality, Tropics, Tropical India, Queer Mobility, Homosexuality
References
- Acemoglu, Daron. (2017, January 30). The Economic Impact of Colonialism, VOXEU, https://cepr.org/voxeu/columns/economic-impact-colonialism
- Anand, Kunal. (2015, December 24). Maharashtra Health Minister Says Homosexuals Need ‘Psychological Treatment’. India Times. https://www.indiatimes.com/news/india/maharashtra-health-minister-says-homosexuals-need-psychological-treatment-231258.html
- Ansari, Salik. (2018). The World of Homosexuals. Journal of Homosexuality, 66(14), pp. 2056-2058. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2018.1517500
- Arroyo, Ana Garcia. (2018). A Literary and Social Depiction of an Indian City: Masala Eroticism and Perverse Realism in Raj Rao’s BomGay. Complutense Journal of English Studies, 26, pp. 65-78. https://doi.org/10.5209/cjes.56019
- Bakshi, Sandeep. (2017). Fractured Resistance: Queer Negotiations of the Postcolonial in R. Raj Rao's The Boyfriend. South Asian Review, 33(2), pp. 37-55. http://doi.org/10.1080/02789527.2012.11932877
- Bala, S., & Gupta, T. (2022). Compulsory Heterosexuality and India’s Gay Subculture in Raja Rao’s Select Works. Literature & Aesthetics. 32(1), 100-113. https://openjournals.library.sydney.edu.au/LA/issue/view/1159
- Bandu, Chavhan Arun. (2018). Representation of Homosexuality in Select Novels of R. Raj Rao and Manju Kapur: A Queer Perspective. [Doctoral dissertation, Late Baburao Patil Arts and Science College]. https://shodhgangotri.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/20.500.14146/13055/1/arun%20b.%20chavhan%20english%209175146152.pdf
- Beauvoir, S.D. (1965). The Second Sex (9th Printing). Vintage Books / Random House.
- Bedi, Pooja. (2022, August 07). Sex & Sexuality in Today’s Times. The Times of India, https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/heartchakra/sex-sexuality-in-todays-times/
- Benitez, C., Chwala, G., Lundberg, A., & Nyeck. (2024). Queering the Tropics: A Cartography of Tropical Materialism, Queer Ecology & Spectral Tropicality. eTropic: Electronic Journal of Studies in the Tropics, 23(1), 1-17. https://journals.jcu.edu.au/index.php/etropic/article/view/4079/3841
- Bhattacharya, N. (2012). Disease and Colonial Enclaves. In Contagion and Enclaves: Tropical Medicine in Colonial India, 1–17. Liverpool University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt5vjf2j.7
- Butler, J. (2006). Gender Trouble. Routledge.
- Chakraborty, Kaustav., & Rajarshi Guha Thakurata. (2013). Indian Concepts on Sexuality. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 55(2), pp. 250-255. https://doi.org/10.4103/0019-5545.105546
- Chanana, K. (2010). Plurality of Lesbian Existence in Modern Indian Writers: Manju Kapur, Rajkamal Chaudhary and Geetanjali Shree. Indian Literature, 54(3 (257)), pp. 190–219. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23349472
- Chaudhary, R. (2019, July 01). Machali Mari Hui. Rajkamal Prakashan.
- Chughtai, I. (2011, January 24). The Quilt. Penguin India.
- Clayton, D. & Bowd, G. (2006). Geography, Tropicality and Postcolonialism: Anglophone and Francophone readings of the work of Pierre Gourou. L’Espace géographique, 35, 208-221. https://doi.org/10.3917/eg.353.0208
- Das, Anindya Shankar. (2020, December 06). Stories from Cruising in Gay India. LIKHO, https://likhowithpride.com/blogs/stories-from-gay-cruising-in-india/
- Das, S. (2021). Gay Subculture and the Cities in India: A Critical Reading of Select Works of R Raj Rao. Rupkatha Journal on Interdisciplinary Studies in Humanities, 13(3), pp. 1-9. https://doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v13n3.40
- Dattani, M. (2000, October 14). Collected Plays. Penguin India.
- Dewanti, Dewantu. (2023, June 26). Semiotic Analysis of Ferdinand De Saussure’s Structuralism on “Energen Green Bean” Advertisement. SSRN, https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4487450#:~:text=The%20signifier%20is%20the%20physical%20appearance%20of%20the%20sign%2C%20such,signs%20in%20language%20and%20communication
- Modi, Devarshi. (2020). ‘The Boyfriend’: A Narrative of Inclusion and Search for Identity. John Foundation Journal of EduSpark, 2(1), 19-37. https://www.johnfoundation.com/journals/eduspark/eijmrsv2i1/effect-of-demonetization-in-agriculture-sector/
- Dey, Panchali. (2023, February 13). Khajuraho Temples: Going Beyond the Erotic Sculptures. The Times of India, https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/travel/destinations/khajuraho-temples-going-beyond-the-erotic-sculptures/photostory/97865352.cms?picid=97865554
- Devi, S. (1977). The World of Homosexuals. Vikas Publishing House.
- Donzé-Magnier, M. (2017). Edward Said: Orientalism. ISRN GEONUM-NST, 1-7.
- Doniger, W. (2002). On the Kamasutra. Daedalus, 131(2), 126–129. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20027767
- Dundes, A. (1997). Binary Opposition in Myth: The Propp/Lévi-Strauss Debate in Retrospect. Western Folklore, 56(1), 39–50. https://doi.org/10.2307/1500385
- Engels, F., & Marx, K. (2015). The Communist Manifesto. Penguin Classics.
- Foucault, M. (1990). The History of Sexuality: An Introduction, volume I. Trans. Robert Hurley. Pantheon Books. 95, 1-160. https://www.uib.no/sites/w3.uib.no/files/attachments/foucaulthistory_of_sexualityvol1.pdf
- Frankfurter, George M., and McGoun, Elton G. (1999, July 08). Ideology and the Theory of Financial Economics. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 39(2), 159-177. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S016726819900030X.
- Ghosal, A., & Ghosal, A. (2024). Queering Tropical Nature: Decolonising Hetero-Ecologies through Indigenous Epistemes in My Father's Garden and Man Tiger. eTropic: Electronic Journal of Studies in the Tropics, 23(1), 117-136. https://journals.jcu.edu.au/index.php/etropic/article/view/4045/3836
- Glăveanu V. P. (2020). New Mobilities and Psychology: Why are We Still Not on the Move?. Europe's journal of psychology, 16(2), 186–192. https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v16i2.3117.
- Gupta, Mohini. (2016, May 14). Review: Why We Must Read ‘Nirala’. The Wire, https://thewire.in/books/review-why-we-must-read-nirala
- Holtkamp, Wolfgang. (2016). Performing Identity as a Challenge to Heteronormativity: Publica and Private spaces in Raja Rao’s The Boyfriend. In Bettina Hofmann and Monika Mueller (Eds.), Performing Ethnicity, Performing Gender: Transcultural Perspectives, 150-160. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315544977
- Jenkins, J.C. (1981). Sociopolitical Movements, The Handbook of Political Behavior, 81-153. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-3878-9_2.
- Judge, Melanie. (2021). Queer at 25: A Critical Perspective on Queerness, Politics and Futures. Journal of Asian and African Studies, 56(1), pp.120–134, https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0021909620946855.
- Kadam, Ms Padmavati G. (2016). Queer Subjectivity and the Interrogation of Hegemonic Masculinity in R. Raj Rao’s The Boyfriend. New Man International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies, 3(1), 100–103. https://web.archive.org/web/20180411005150id_/http://www.newmanpublication.com/admin/issue/Articale/SECTION%20-%20E-%209.pdf
- Kak, S. (1993). Understanding Caste in India. Mankind Quarterly, 34(11), 117–123. https://doi.org/10.46469/mq.1993.34.1.8
- Kanga, F. (2008, December 17). Trying to Grow. Penguin India.
- Kapur, Jyotsna. (2006). Love in the Midst of Fascism: Gender and Sexuality in the Contemporary Indian Documentary. Visual Anthropology, 19(3-4), 335-346. https://doi.org/10.1080/08949460500297448
- Kapur, M. (2002, December 01). A Married Woman. India Ink.
- King, Frederick D. (2012). Queer Spaces and Strategic Social Constructions in Rao’s The Boyfriend. The Word Hoard, 1, 35-45. https://ojs.lib.uwo.ca/index.php/wordhoard/article/view/7129/5827
- Knight, L. I. (2010). [Review of “Ugra,” Chocolate and Other Writings on Male Homoeroticism, by P. B. Sharma & R. Vanita]. International Journal of Hindu Studies, 14(2/3), 343–345. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41476628
- Asianet Newsable. (2018, March 31). Know Why Arjuna's Son Aravan Sacrificed his Life During Kurukshetra War. https://newsable.asianetnews.com/tamil-nadu/tamil-nadu-celebrates-indias-biggest-transgender-festival
- Krishan, Y. (1972). The Erotic Sculptures of India. Artibus Asiae, 34(4), 331–343. https://doi.org/10.2307/3249625
- Lundberg, A., Regis, H., & Agbonifo, J. (2022). Tropical Landscapes and Nature~Culture Entanglements: Reading Tropicality via Avatar. eTropic: Electronic Journal of Studies in the Tropics, 21(1), 1-27.
- Lévi-Strauss, C. (1969). The Raw and the Cooked. The University of Chicago Press.
- Macheso, W. (2024). Queering Tropical African Heteronormativity through Spirit Worlds: Akwaeke Emezi's The Death of Vivek Oji. eTropic: Electronic Journal of Studies in the Tropics, 23(1), 197-212. https://journals.jcu.edu.au/index.php/etropic/article/view/4080/3840
- Margulies, J. D. (2018). The Conservation Ideological State Apparatus. Conservation and Society, 16(2), 181–192. http://www.jstor.org/stable/26393328
- Minault, G. (1996). Coming Out: Decisions to Leave Purdah. India International Centre Quarterly, 23(3/4), 93–105. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23004613
- Misra, G. (2009). Decriminalising homosexuality in India. Reproductive Health Matters, 17(34), 20–28. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40647442
- Mukherjee, Sreya. (2024). Kūttāṇtạvar's Festivals: Tropicality, Transsexuality, Death & Rebirth in Tamil Mahābhārata Folk Cultures. eTropic: Electronic Journal of Studies in the Tropics, 23(1), 137–155. https://journals.jcu.edu.au/index.php/etropic/article/view/4034/3837
- Namjoshi, S. (2013, April 26). Fabulous Feminist. Zubaan.
- Nirala, S. (2021, October 25). Kulli Bhat. Prabhakar Prakashan Private Limited.
- Patil, Namdev Kashinath. (2015). Reflections on Queer Culture: A Comparative Study of the Select Novels of Alan Hollinghurst and R. Raj Rao. University Grants Commission, Research Report https://shodhgangotri.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/20.500.14146/8677/1/The%20Final%20Report%20of%20MRP.pdf
- Patnaik, Pranta Pratik. (2019). Public Spaces and Private Intimacies. In Chakraborty, K. (Eds.). The Politics of Belonging in Contemporary India: Anxiety and Intimacy (pp. 167-179). Routledge India.
- Rahim, J. (1999). From Archaeology to Iconology: Representations of the Tropics in Senior’s “Gardening in the Tropics and in Goodison’s to Us, All Flowers are Roses.” Journal of West Indian Literature, 8(2), 68–82. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23019792
- Rao, Raja. (2016). The Boyfriend. Penguin Random House, https://pdfcoffee.com/the-boyfriend-by-r-raja-rao-pdf-free.html
- Ross, Oliver. (2014). Communal Tensions: Homosexuality in Raj Rao’s The Boyfriend. Rupkatha Journal on Interdisciplinary Studies in Humanities, 6(1), pp. 108-119. https://rupkatha.com/V6/n1/11_Homosexuality_Raja_Rao_The_Boyfriend.pdf
- Rushdianto, R., Maryanto, I., Mundayat, A., Ashari, H., Fauziah, F., Wibowo, D., & Sujarwo, W. (2024). Queering Tropical Heritage: Flora and Fauna Reliefs in Karmawibhangga, Borobudur Temple, Indonesia. eTropic: Electronic Journal of Studies in the Tropics, 23(1), 95-116. https://journals.jcu.edu.au/index.php/etropic/article/view/4012/3835
- The Times of India. (2018, September 06). SC Decriminalises Section 377: What the Court Said. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/sc-decriminalises-section-377-what-the-court-said/articleshow/65698005.cms
- Said, E. (1979, October 12). Oreintalism. Vintage.
- Sharma, K. L. (2012). Is there Today Caste System or there is only Caste in India? Polish Sociological Review, 178, 245–263. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41969443.
- Sharma, P. (2009). Chocolate. Trans. Ruth Vanitha. Duke University Press.
- Shree, G. (2007, January 01). Tirohit. Rajkamal Prakashan.
- TEDx Talks. (2019, April 16). What Does it Mean to be Queer [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/SMluF13m_U4
- Tendulkar, V. (2001, October 04). Mitrachi Goshta. Oxford University Press.
- The Quint. (2018, September 06). Subramanian Swamy Calls Homosexuality a ‘Genetic Disorder’ [Video]. YouTube, https://youtu.be/l38hWXeu1Gg
- Tiwari, Nidhi. (2013). A Study of Gay Culture in the Select Novels of R. Raj Rao Shyam Selvadurai and David Levithan [PhD dissertation, Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University]. https://scholar.googleusercontent.com/scholar?q=cache:eHPoioM9JX8J:scholar.google.com/+the+boyfriend+by+raja+rao&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5
- The New Indian Express. (2012, May 15). To be Gay and Feel your Heart Break. https://www.newindianexpress.com/magazine/2009/jan/03/to-be-gay-and-feel-your-heart-break-15307.html
- Ssorin-Chaikov, Nikolai. (2015, March 16). Sociopolitics, Reviews in Anthropology, 44(1), 5-27. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00938157.2015.1001645.
- Vanita, R., & Kidwai, S. (Eds.). (2021). Same-sex Love in India: A Literary History. Penguin UK.
- Villalba, Cynthia. (2014). M. H. Socioeconomic stats (SES). Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well-Being Research, p.6210-6212. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-0753-5_2805.
- Vinney, Cynthia. (2023, April 14). Gender vs. Sexuality: What's the Difference?, Verywellmind, https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-the-difference-between-gender-and-sexuality-5207899.
- Weintrob, Amos., Hansell, Luke., Zebracki, Martin., Barnard, Yvonne., & Lucas, Karen. (2021, August 12). Queer mobilities: Critical LGBTQ Perspectives of Public Transport Spaces, Mobilities, 16(5), 775-791. https://doi.org/10.1080/17450101.2021.1958249.